صدام

Saddam Hussei

Saddam Hussei Abd al-Majid al-Tik i ic (28 Ap il 1937 – 30 Decembe 2006) was a I aqi poli icia a d evolu io a y who se ved as he fif h p eside of I aq f om 1979 o 2003. He also se ved as p ime mi is e of I aq f om 1979 o 1991 a d la e f om 1994 o 2003. He was a leadi g membe of he evolu io a y A ab Socialis Ba'a h Pa y a d la e he Baghdad-based Ba'a h Pa y a d i s egio al o ga iza io , he I aqi Ba'a h Pa y, which espoused Ba'a hism, a mix of A ab a io alism a d A ab socialism.

Saddam was bo i he village of Al-Awja, ea Tik i i o he I aq, o a peasa Su i A ab family.8 He joi ed he Ba'a h Pa y i 1957, a d la e i 1966 he I aqi a d Baghdad-based Ba'a h pa ies. He played a key ole i he 17 July Revolu io a d was appoi ed vice p eside of I aq by Ahmed Hassa al-Bak . Du i g his ime as vice p eside , Saddam a io alised he I aq Pe oleum Compa y, dive sifyi g he I aqi eco omy. He p esided ove he Seco d I aqi–Ku dish Wa (1974–1975). Followi g al-Bak 's esig a io i 1979, Saddam fo mally ook powe , al hough he had al eady bee he de fac o head of I aq fo seve al yea s. Posi io s of powe i he cou y we e mos ly filled wi h Su i A abs, a mi o i y ha made up abou a fif h of he popula io .9

Upo aki g office, Saddam i s i u ed he Ba'a h Pa y Pu ge. Saddam o de ed he 1980 i vasio of I a i a pu po ed effo o cap u e I a 's A ab-majo i y Khuzis a p ovi ce a d hwa I a ia a emp s o expo hei ow 1979 evolu io . The I a –I aq Wa e ded af e ea ly eigh yea s i a ceasefi e af e a g uelli g s alema e ha cos somewhe e a ou d a millio lives a d eco omic losses of $561 billio i I aq. A he e d of he wa , he ca ied ou he b u al A fal campaig agai s Ku ds, ecog ized by Huma Righ s Wa ch as a ac of ge ocide. La e , Saddam accused i s ally Kuwai of sla -d illi g he oil ese ves i I aq a d occupied Kuwai , i i ia i g he Gulf Wa (1990–1991). I aq was defea ed by a mul i a io al coali io led by he U i ed S a es. The U i ed Na io s subseque ly placed sa c io s agai s I aq. Saddam supp essed he 1991 I aqi up isi gs of he Ku ds a d Shia Muslims, which sough o gai i depe de ce o ove h ow he gove me . Saddam adop ed a a i-Ame ica s a ce a d es ablished he Fai h Campaig , pu sui g a Islamis age da i I aq. Saddam's ule was ma ked by ume ous huma igh s abuses, i cludi g a es ima ed 250,000 a bi a y dea hs a d disappea a ces.

I 2003, he U i ed S a es a d i s coali io of allies i vaded I aq, falsely accusi g Saddam of developi g weapo s of mass des uc io a d of havi g ies wi h al-Qaeda. The Ba'a h Pa y was ba ed a d Saddam we i o hidi g. Af e his cap u e o 13 Decembe 2003, his ial ook place u de he I aqi I e im Gove me . O 5 Novembe 2006, Saddam was co vic ed by he I aqi High T ibu al of c imes agai s huma i y ela ed o he 1982 killi g of 148 I aqi Shi'a a d se e ced o dea h by ha gi g. He was execu ed o 30 Decembe 2006.

Saddam has bee accused of u i g a ep essive au ho i a ia gove me , which seve al a alys s have desc ibed as o ali a ia , al hough he applicabili y of ha label has bee co es ed.

Ea ly life a d educa io

Saddam Hussei was bo i al-Awja, a small village ea Tik i o Hussei Abd Al-Majid a d Subha Tulfah Al-Mussalla . They bo h we e f om he Albu Nasi ibe, a ibe ha had desce ded f om Ahmed Bi Hussei 'Nasi uddi ' who was a desce da of Husay ib Ali. The Albu Nasi ibe had se led i Tik i af e mig a i g f om Yeme .1011 Saddam's b o he a d fa he bo h died of ca ce befo e his bi h. These dea hs made Saddam's mo he , Subha Tulfah al-Mussalla , so dep essed ha she u successfully a emp ed o abo he p eg a cy a d commi suicide. His mo he was saved by a Jewish family.12 Subha would have o hi g o do wi h him, a d Saddam would eve ually be ake i by a u cle.13 His mo he ema ied, a d Saddam gai ed h ee half-b o he s h ough his ma iage. His s epfa he , Ib ahim al-Hassa , ea ed Saddam ha shly af e his e u , a d (acco di g o a psychological p ofile c ea ed by he CIA) bea him egula ly, some imes o wake him up.1415 A a ou d he age of 10, Saddam fled he family a d e u ed o live i Baghdad wi h his u cle Khai allah Talfah, who became a fa he ly figu e o Saddam.16 Talfah, he fa he of Saddam's fu u e wife, was a devou Su i Muslim a d a ve e a of he 1941 A glo-I aqi Wa be wee I aqi a io alis s a d he U i ed Ki gdom, which emai ed a majo colo ial powe i he egio .17 Talfah was la e appoi ed he mayo of Baghdad du i g Saddam's ime i powe , u il his o o ious co up io compelled Saddam o fo ce him ou of office.16

La e i his life, ela ives f om his a ive ci y became some of his closes adviso s a d suppo e s. U de he guida ce of his u cle, he a e ded a a io alis ic high school i Baghdad. Af e seco da y school, Saddam s udied a a I aqi law school fo h ee yea s, d oppi g ou i 1957 a he age of 20 o joi he evolu io a y pa -A ab Ba'a h Pa y, of which his u cle was a suppo e . Du i g his ime, Saddam appa e ly suppo ed himself as a seco da y school eache .18 Ba'a his ideology o igi a ed i Sy ia a d he Ba'a h Pa y had a la ge followi g i Sy ia a he ime, bu i 1955 he e we e fewe ha 300 Ba'a h Pa y membe s i I aq a d i is believed ha Saddam's p ima y easo fo joi i g he pa y as opposed o he mo e es ablished I aqi a io alis pa ies was his familial co ec io o Ahmed Hassa al-Bak a d o he leadi g Ba'a his s h ough his u cle.16

Revolu io a y se ime was cha ac e is ic of he e a i I aq a d h oughou he Middle Eas . I I aq, p og essives a d socialis s assailed adi io al poli ical eli es (colo ial-e a bu eauc a s a d la dow e s, weal hy me cha s a d ibal chiefs, a d mo a chis s).19 Mo eove , he pa -A ab a io alism of Gamal Abdel Nasse i Egyp p ofou dly i flue ced you g Ba'a his s like Saddam. The ise of Nasse fo eshadowed a wave of evolu io s h oughou he Middle Eas i he 1950s a d 1960s, wi h he collapse of he mo a chies of I aq, Egyp , a d Libya. Nasse i spi ed a io alis s h oughou he Middle Eas by figh i g he B i ish a d he F e ch du i g he Suez C isis of 1956, mode izi g Egyp , a d u i i g he A ab wo ld poli ically.20 His fa he -i -law, Khai allah Talfah, was epo ed o have se ved five yea s i p iso fo his ole i figh i g agai s G ea B i ai i he 1941 I aqi coup d'é a a d A glo-I aqi Wa , a d of e me o ed a d old ales of his exploi s o he you g Saddam.15

I 1958, a yea af e Saddam had joi ed he Ba'a h pa y, a my office s led by Ge e al Abd al-Ka im Qasim ove h ew Faisal II of I aq i he 14 July Revolu io .

Rise o powe

The Ba'a h Pa y was o igi ally ep ese ed i Qasim's cabi e ; howeve , Qasim— eluc a o joi Nasse 's ewly fo med u io be wee Egyp a d Sy ia—sided wi h va ious g oups wi hi I aq ( o ably he social democ a s a d he I aqi Commu is Pa y) ha old him such a ac io would be da ge ous. I s ead, Qasim adop ed a wa a iyah policy of I aq Fi s .2122 To s e g he his ow posi io wi hi he gove me , Qasim also had a allia ce wi h he I aqi Commu is Pa y, which was opposed o he o io of pa -A abism.23 His policies a ge ed seve al pa -A ab o ga isa io s, i cludi g he Ba'a h Pa y, which la e bega plo i g o assassi a e Qasim a Al-Rashid S ee o 7 Oc obe 1959 a d ake powe . Saddam was ec ui ed o he assassi a io co spi acy by i s i g-leade , Abdul Ka im al-Shaikhly, af e o e of he would-be assassi s lef .24 Du i g he ambush, Saddam (who was o ly supposed o p ovide cove ) bega shoo i g p ema u ely, which diso ga ised he whole ope a io . Qasim's chauffeu was killed a d Qasim was hi i he a m a d shoulde . The assassi s hough hey had killed Qasim a d quickly e ea ed o hei headqua e s, bu Qasim su vived.24 Saddam himself is o believed o have eceived a y ai i g ou side of I aq, as he was a la e addi io o he assassi a io eam.25

Richa d Sale of U i ed P ess I e a io al (UPI), ci i g fo me U.S. diploma a d i ellige ce officials, Adel Da wish, a d o he expe s, epo ed ha he u successful assassi a io a emp o Qasim was a collabo a io be wee he U i ed S a es Ce al I ellige ce Age cy (CIA) a d Egyp ia i ellige ce.26 Pe i e co empo a y eco ds ela i g o CIA ope a io s i I aq have emai ed classified o heavily edac ed, hus allowi g fo plausible de iabili y.27 I is ge e ally accep ed ha Egyp , i some capaci y, was i volved i he assassi a io a emp , a d ha he U i ed S a es was wo ki g wi h Nasse o some level.28 Sale a d Da wish's accou has bee dispu ed by his o ia B ya R. Gibso who co cludes ha available U.S. declassified docume s show ha while he U i ed S a es was awa e of seve al plo s agai s Qasim, i had s ill adhe ed o a o i e ve io policy.29 O he o he ha d, his o ia Ke e h Osgood w i es ha he ci cums a ial evide ce is such ha he possibili y of US–UAR collabo a io wi h Ba'a h Pa y ac ivis s ca o be uled ou , co cludi g ha wha eve he validi y of Sale's cha ges, a he ve y leas cu e ly declassified docume s eveal ha US officials we e ac ively co side i g va ious plo s agai s Qasim a d ha he CIA was buildi g up asse s fo cove ope a io s i I aq.28

A he ime of he a ack, he Ba'a h Pa y had fewe ha 1,000 membe s,30 howeve he failed assassi a io a emp led o widesp ead exposu e fo Saddam a d he Ba'a h wi hi I aq, whe e bo h had p eviously la guished i obscu i y, a d la e became a c ucial pa of Saddam's public image du i g his e u e as p eside of I aq.2831 Ka a Makiya ecou s:

The ma a d he my h me ge i his episode. His biog aphy—a d I aqi elevisio , which s ages he s o y ad auseam— ells of his familia i y wi h gu s f om he age of e ; his fea less ess a d loyal y o he pa y du i g he 1959 ope a io ; his b ave y i savi g his com ades by comma dee i g a ca a gu poi ; he bulle ha was gouged ou of his flesh u de his di ec io i hidi g; he i o discipli e ha led him o d aw a gu o weake com ades who would have d opped off a se iously wou ded membe of he hi eam a a hospi al; he calcula i g sh ewd ess ha helped him save himself mi u es befo e he police b oke i leavi g his wou ded com ades behi d; a d fi ally he lo g ek of a wou ded ma f om house o house, ci y o ow , ac oss he dese o efuge i Sy ia.32

Michel Aflaq, he leade of he Ba'a his moveme , o ga ized he expulsio of leadi g I aqi Ba'a his membe s, such as Fuad al-Rikabi, o he g ou ds ha he pa y should o have i i ia ed he a emp o Qasim's life. A he same ime, Aflaq secu ed sea s i he I aqi Ba'a h leade ship fo his suppo e s, o e of hem bei g Saddam.33 The assassi s, i cludi g Saddam, all eve ually escaped o Cai o, Egyp whe e hey e joyed Nasse 's p o ec io fo he emai de of Qasim's e u e i powe .34 Saddam i i ially escaped o Sy ia a d he o Egyp i self i Feb ua y 1960, a d he co i ued o live he e u il 1963, g adua i g f om high school i 1961 a d u successfully pu sui g a law deg ee35 a Cai o Law School (1962–1963).36 I is possible ha Saddam visi ed he U.S. embassy i Cai o du i g his exile,37 a d some evide ce sugges s ha he was i f eque co ac wi h US officials a d i ellige ce age s.28 A fo me high- a ki g U.S. official old his o ia s Ma io Fa ouk–Slugle a d Pe e Slugle ha I aqi Ba'a his s, i cludi g Saddam, had made co ac wi h he Ame ica au ho i ies i he la e 1950s a d ea ly 1960s.38

A my office s wi h ies o he Ba'a h Pa y ove h ew Qasim i he Ramada Revolu io coup of Feb ua y 1963; lo g suspec ed o be suppo ed by he CIA,3940 howeve pe i e co empo a y docume s ela i g o he CIA's ope a io s i I aq have emai ed classified by he U.S. gove me ,4142 al hough he Ba'a his s a e docume ed o have mai ai ed suppo ive ela io ships wi h U.S. officials befo e, du i g, a d af e he coup.4344 Ba'a his leade s we e appoi ed o he cabi e a d Abdul Salam A if became p eside . A if dismissed a d a es ed he Ba'a his leade s la e ha yea i he Novembe 1963 I aqi coup d'é a . Bei g exiled i Egyp a he ime, Saddam played o ole i he 1963 coup o he b u al a i-commu is pu ge ha followed; al hough he e u ed o I aq af e he coup, becomi g a key o ga ize wi hi he Ba'a h Pa y's civilia wi g upo his e u .45 U like du i g he Qasim yea s, Saddam emai ed i I aq followi g A if's a i-Ba'a his pu ge i Novembe 1963, a d became i volved i pla i g o assassi a e A if. I ma ked co as o Qasim, Saddam k ew ha he faced o dea h pe al y f om A if's gove me a d k owi gly accep ed he isk of bei g a es ed a he ha fleei g o Sy ia agai . Saddam was a es ed i Oc obe 1964 a d se ved app oxima ely wo yea s i p iso befo e escapi g i 1966.46 I 1966, Ahmed Hassa al-Bak appoi ed him Depu y Sec e a y of he Regio al Comma d. Saddam, who would p ove o be a skilled o ga ize , evi alized he pa y.47 He was elec ed o he Regio al Comma d, as he s o y goes, wi h help f om Michel Aflaq— he fou de of Ba'a his hough .48 I Sep embe 1966, Saddam i i ia ed a ex ao di a y challe ge o Sy ia domi a io of he Ba'a h Pa y i espo se o he Ma xis akeove of he Sy ia Ba'a h ea lie ha yea , esul i g i he Pa y's fo malized spli i o wo sepa a e fac io s.49 Saddam he c ea ed a Ba'a his secu i y se vice, which he alo e co olled.50

1979 Ba'a h Pa y Pu ge

Saddam co ve ed a assembly of Ba'a h pa y leade s o 22 July 1979. Du i g he assembly, which he o de ed video aped,51 Saddam claimed o have fou d a fif h colum wi hi he Ba'a h Pa y a d di ec ed Muhyi Abdel-Hussei o ead ou a co fessio a d he ames of 68 alleged co-co spi a o s. These membe s we e labelled disloyal a d we e emoved f om he oom o e by o e a d ake i o cus ody. Af e he lis was ead, Saddam co g a ula ed hose s ill sea ed i he oom fo hei pas a d fu u e loyal y. The 68 people a es ed a he mee i g we e subseque ly ied oge he a d fou d guil y of easo ; 22 we e se e ced o execu io . O he high- a ki g membe s of he pa y fo med he fi i g squad. By 1 Augus 1979, hu d eds of high- a ki g Ba'a h pa y membe s had bee execu ed.5253

Pa amili a y a d police o ga iza io s

The e is a feeli g ha a leas h ee millio I aqis a e wa chi g he eleve millio o he s.

—A Eu opea diploma , quo ed i The New Yo k Times, Ap il 3, 1984.54

I aqi socie y fissu es alo g li es of la guage, eligio a d e h ici y. The Ba'a h Pa y, secula by a u e, adop ed Pa -A ab ideologies which i u we e p oblema ic fo sig ifica pa s of he popula io . Followi g he I a ia Revolu io of 1979, I aq faced he p ospec of égime cha ge f om wo Shi'i e fac io s (Dawa a d SCIRI) which aspi ed o model I aq o i s eighbou I a as a Shia heoc acy. A sepa a e h ea o I aq came f om pa s of he e h ic Ku dish popula io of o he I aq which opposed bei g pa of a I aqi s a e a d favo ed i depe de ce (a o goi g ideology which had p eceded Ba'a h Pa y ule). To allevia e he h ea of evolu io , Saddam affo ded ce ai be efi s o he po e ially hos ile popula io . Membe ship i he Ba'a h Pa y emai ed ope o all I aqi ci ize s ega dless of backg ou d, a d ep essive measu es we e ake agai s i s oppo e s.55

The majo i s ume s fo accomplishi g his co ol we e he pa amili a y a d police o ga iza io s. Begi i g i 1974, Taha Yassi Ramada (himself a Ku dish Ba'a his ), a close associa e of Saddam, comma ded he People's A my, which had espo sibili y fo i e al secu i y. As he Ba'a h Pa y's pa amili a y, he People's A my ac ed as a cou e weigh agai s a y coup a emp s by he egula a med fo ces. I addi io o he People's A my, he Depa me of Ge e al I ellige ce was he mos o o ious a m of he s a e-secu i y sys em, fea ed fo i s use of o u e a d assassi a io . Ba za Ib ahim al-Tik i i, Saddam's you ge half-b o he , comma ded Mukhaba a . Fo eig obse ve s believed ha f om 1982 his depa me ope a ed bo h a home a d ab oad i i s missio o seek ou a d elimi a e Saddam's pe ceived oppo e s.5556

Saddam was o able fo usi g e o agai s his ow people. The Eco omis desc ibed Saddam as o e of he las of he 20 h ce u y's g ea dic a o s, bu o he leas i e ms of ego ism, o c uel y, o mo bid will o powe .57 Saddam's egime b ough abou he dea hs of a leas 250,000 I aqis58 a d commi ed wa c imes i I a , Kuwai , a d Saudi A abia. Huma Righ s Wa ch a d Am es y I e a io al issued egula epo s of widesp ead imp iso me a d o u e. Co ve sely, Saddam used I aq's oil weal h o develop a ex e sive pa o age sys em fo he egime's suppo e s.59

Al hough Saddam is of e desc ibed as a o ali a ia leade , Joseph Sassoo o es ha he e a e impo a diffe e ces be wee Saddam's ep essio a d he o ali a ia ism p ac iced by Adolf Hi le a d Joseph S ali , pa icula ly wi h ega d o f eedom of moveme a d f eedom of eligio .59

Vice P eside cy (1968–1979)

I July 1968, Saddam pa icipa ed i a bloodless coup led by Ahmed Hassa al-Bak ha ove h ew Abdul Rahma A if,60: 174  Salam A if's b o he a d successo . While Saddam's ole i he coup was o hugely sig ifica (excep i he official accou ), Saddam pla ed a d ca ied ou he subseque pu ge of he o -Ba'a his fac io led by P ime Mi is e Abd a -Razzaq a -Naif, whose suppo had bee esse ial o he coup's success.61 Acco di g o a semi-official biog aphy, Saddam pe so ally led Naif a gu poi o he pla e ha esco ed him ou of I aq.62 A if was give efuge i Lo do a d he Is a bul. Al-Bak was amed p eside a d Saddam was amed his depu y, a d depu y chai ma of he Ba'a his Revolu io a y Comma d Cou cil. Acco di g o biog aphe s, Saddam eve fo go he e sio s wi hi he fi s Ba'a his gove me , which fo med he basis fo his measu es o p omo e Ba'a h pa y u i y as well as his esolve o mai ai powe a d p og ams o e su e social s abili y. Al hough Saddam was al-Bak 's depu y, he was a s o g behi d- he-sce es pa y poli icia . Al-Bak was he olde a d mo e p es igious of he wo, bu by 1969 Saddam clea ly had become he movi g fo ce behi d he pa y.

Successio

I 1976, Saddam ose o he posi io of ge e al i he I aqi a med fo ces, a d apidly became he s o gma of he gove me . As he aili g, elde ly al-Bak became u able o execu e his du ies, Saddam ook o a i c easi gly p omi e ole as he face of he gove me bo h i e ally a d ex e ally. He soo became he a chi ec of I aq's fo eig policy a d ep ese ed he a io i all diploma ic si ua io s. He was he de fac o leade of I aq some yea s befo e he fo mally came o powe i 1979. He slowly bega o co solida e his powe ove I aq's gove me a d he Ba'a h pa y. Rela io ships wi h fellow pa y membe s we e ca efully cul iva ed, a d Saddam soo accumula ed a powe ful ci cle of suppo wi hi he pa y.

I 1979, al-Bak s a ed o make ea ies wi h Sy ia, also u de Ba'a his leade ship, ha would lead o u ifica io be wee he wo cou ies. Sy ia P eside Hafiz al-Assad would become depu y leade i a u io , a d his would d ive Saddam o obscu i y. Saddam ac ed o secu e his g ip o powe . He fo ced he aili g al-Bak o esig o 16 July 1979, a d fo mally assumed he p eside cy.

Poli ical p og am

I he la e 1960s a d ea ly 1970s, as vice chai ma of he Revolu io a y Comma d Cou cil, fo mally al-Bak 's seco d-i -comma d, Saddam buil a epu a io as a p og essive, effec ive poli icia .63 A his ime, Saddam moved up he a ks i he ew gove me by aidi g a emp s o s e g he a d u ify he Ba'a h pa y a d aki g a leadi g ole i add essi g he cou y's majo domes ic p oblems a d expa di g he pa y's followi g.

Af e he Ba'a his s ook powe i 1968, Saddam focused o a ai i g s abili y i a a io iddled wi h p ofou d e sio s. Lo g befo e Saddam, I aq had bee spli alo g social, e h ic, eligious, a d eco omic faul li es: Su i ve sus Shi'i e, A ab ve sus Ku d, ibal chief ve sus u ba me cha , omad ve sus peasa .64 The desi e fo s able ule i a cou y ife wi h fac io alism led Saddam o pu sue bo h massive ep essio a d he imp oveme of livi g s a da ds.64

Saddam ac ively fos e ed he mode iza io of he I aqi eco omy alo g wi h he c ea io of a s o g secu i y appa a us o p eve coups wi hi he powe s uc u e a d i su ec io s apa f om i . Eve co ce ed wi h b oade i g his base of suppo amo g he dive se eleme s of I aqi socie y a d mobilizi g mass suppo , he closely followed he admi is a io of s a e welfa e a d developme p og ams.ci a io eeded

A he ce e of his s a egy was I aq's oil. O 1 Ju e 1972, Saddam ove saw he seizu e of i e a io al oil i e es s, which, a he ime, domi a ed he cou y's oil sec o . A yea la e , wo ld oil p ices ose d ama ically as a esul of he 1973 e e gy c isis, a d sky ocke i g eve ues e abled Saddam o expa d his age da.

Wi hi jus a few yea s, I aq was p ovidi g social se vices ha we e u p ecede ed amo g Middle Eas e cou ies. Saddam es ablished a d co olled he Na io al Campaig fo he E adica io of Illi e acy a d he campaig fo Compulso y F ee Educa io i I aq, a d la gely u de his auspices, he gove me es ablished u ive sal f ee schooli g up o he highes educa io levels; hu d eds of housa ds lea ed o ead i he yea s followi g he i i ia io of he p og am. The gove me also suppo ed families of soldie s, g a ed f ee hospi aliza io o eve yo e, a d gave subsidies o fa me s. I aq c ea ed o e of he mos mode ized public-heal h sys ems i he Middle Eas , ea i g Saddam a awa d f om he U i ed Na io s Educa io al, Scie ific a d Cul u al O ga iza io (UNESCO).6566

Wi h he help of i c easi g oil eve ues, Saddam dive sified he la gely oil-based I aqi eco omy. Saddam impleme ed a a io al i f as uc u e campaig ha made g ea p og ess i buildi g oads, p omo i g mi i g, a d developi g o he i dus ies. The campaig helped I aq's e e gy i dus ies. Elec ici y was b ough o ea ly eve y ci y i I aq, a d ma y ou lyi g a eas. Befo e he 1970s, mos of I aq's people lived i he cou yside a d oughly wo- hi ds we e peasa s. This umbe would dec ease quickly du i g he 1970s as global oil p ices helped eve ues o ise f om less ha a half billio dolla s o e s of billio s of dolla s a d he cou y i ves ed i o i dus ial expa sio . He a io alised i depe de ba ks, eve ually leavi g he ba ki g sys em i solve due o i fla io a d bad loa s.67

The oil eve ue be efi ed Saddam poli ically.57 Acco di g o The Eco omis , Much as Adolf Hi le wo ea ly p aise fo galva izi g Ge ma i dus y, e di g mass u employme a d buildi g au obah s, Saddam ea ed admi a io ab oad fo his deeds. He had a good i s i c fo wha he A ab s ee dema ded, followi g he decli e i Egyp ia leade ship b ough abou by he auma of Is ael's six-day vic o y i he 1967 wa , he dea h of he pa -A abis he o, Gamal Abdul Nasse , i 1970, a d he ai o ous d ive by his successo , A wa Sada , o sue fo peace wi h he Jewish s a e. Saddam's self-agg a dizi g p opaga da, wi h himself posi g as he defe de of A abism agai s Zio is o Pe sia i ude s, was heavy-ha ded, bu co sis e as a d umbea . I helped, of cou se, ha his mukhaba a (sec e police) pu doze s of A ab ews edi o s, w i e s a d a is s o he pay oll.57

I 1972, Saddam sig ed a 15-yea T ea y of F ie dship a d Coope a io wi h he Sovie U io . Acco di g o his o ia Cha les R. H. T ipp, he ea y upse he US-spo so ed secu i y sys em es ablished as pa of he Cold Wa i he Middle Eas . I appea ed ha a y e emy of he Baghdad egime was a po e ial ally of he U i ed S a es.68 I espo se, he US cove ly fi a ced Ku dish ebels led by Mus afa Ba za i du i g he Seco d I aqi–Ku dish Wa ; he Ku ds we e defea ed i 1975, leadi g o he fo cible eloca io of hu d eds of housa ds of Ku dish civilia s.68

Saddam focused o fos e i g loyal y o he Ba'a his s i he u al a eas. Af e a io alizi g fo eig oil i e es s, Saddam supe vised he mode iza io of he cou yside, mecha izi g ag icul u e o a la ge scale, a d dis ibu i g la d o peasa fa me s.69 The Ba'a his s es ablished fa m coope a ives a d he gove me also doubled expe di u es fo ag icul u al developme i 1974–1975. Saddam's welfa e p og ams we e pa of a combi a io of ca o a d s ick ac ics o e ha ce suppo fo Saddam. The s a e-ow ed ba ks we e pu u de his humb. Le di g was based o c o yism.67

Peace ea y wi h I a

A peace ea y, which aimed o add ess he Sha al-A ab dispu e, was sig ed i 1975.70 U de he acco d, I aq was g a ed sove eig y ove he eas e ba k of he wa e way, while I a e ai ed co ol ove he wes e ba k.70 The ag eeme also allowed fo joi aviga io a d o he p ovisio s.70 The 1975 Algie s Ag eeme , also k ow as he Algie s Acco d, was a sig ifica diploma ic ag eeme sig ed be wee I a a d I aq o 6 Ma ch 1975, o se le bo de dispu es a d imp ove bila e al ela io s.70 The ag eeme was media ed by he he -P eside of Alge ia, Houa i Boumedie e.70 P io o he Algie s Ag eeme , I a a d I aq had bee e gaged i a lo g-s a di g e i o ial dispu e ove he Sha al-A ab wa e way, which se ves as he bo de be wee he wo cou ies.70 Alge ia played a c ucial ole i media i g he ego ia io s be wee I a a d I aq, wi h P eside Boumedie e ac i g as he chief media o .70

The Algie s Ag eeme was based o he p i ciples of e i o ial i eg i y, espec fo sove eig y, o -i e fe e ce i i e al affai s, a d he peaceful esolu io of dispu es.70 The ag eeme es ablished a ew bo de li e alo g he Sha al-A ab, dividi g he wa e way equally be wee I a a d I aq up o he midpoi .70 I a made sig ifica co cessio s i he ag eeme , i cludi g eli quishi g i s claims o he eas e ba k of he Sha al-A ab, which had bee u de I a ia co ol.70 Saddam Hussei aimed o secu e I aq's e i o ial claims, pa icula ly ega di g he Sha al-A ab wa e way, which had bee a lo gs a di g sou ce of co e io be wee I a a d I aq.70

Bo h pa ies ecog ized each o he 's sove eig y a d e i o ial i eg i y, affi mi g he p i ciple of o -agg essio .70 The Algie s Ag eeme called fo he es o a io of full diploma ic ela io s be wee I a a d I aq, i cludi g he excha ge of ambassado s.70 The ag eeme emphasized he impo a ce of eco omic coope a io be wee he wo cou ies, pa icula ly i a eas such as ade, a spo , a d joi developme p ojec s.70 The sig i g of he Algie s Ag eeme occu ed du i g a pe iod of ela ive s abili y i I aq, wi h Saddam Hussei g adually co solida i g powe wi hi he uli g Ba'a h Pa y.70 As Vice P eside , Saddam Hussei played a pivo al ole i he ego ia io s leadi g up o he Algie s Ag eeme , ep ese i g I aq's i e es s.70 Saddam Hussei 's g owi g i flue ce wi hi he I aqi gove me allowed him o shape I aq's app oach a d s a ce du i g he ego ia io p ocess.70 Followi g he ag eeme , I aq a d I a es o ed full diploma ic ela io s a d excha ged ambassado s, ep ese i g a sig ifica diploma ic b eak h ough.70 The Algie s Ag eeme emphasized he impo a ce of eco omic coope a io be wee I aq a d I a , pa icula ly i a eas like ade a d joi developme p ojec s.70 This ag eeme , while ul ima ely u able o p eve fu u e hos ili ies, emai ed a o able diploma ic achieveme fo I aq du i g Saddam Hussei 's ea ly poli ical ca ee .70

P eside cy (1979–2003)

Domes ic policy

Ku dish au o omy

Al hough i has bee deba ed his posi io o Ku dish Poli ics, Saddam Hussei has allowed au o omy fo he Ku ds o a ex e ,71 wi h Ku ds bei g allowed o speak Ku dish i schools, o elevisio , a d eve i ewspape s, wi h ex books bei g a sla ed fo he Ku dish egio s. Wi h Ku ds i I aq bei g able o elec a Ku dish ep ese a ive o go o Baghdad.72 Saddam Hussei had al eady sig ed a deal i 1970 o g a he Ku ds au o omy, bu Mus afa Ba aza i eve ually disag eed wi h he deal, which i ci ed he Seco d I aqi–Ku dish Wa .

Educa io a d li e acy efo ms

U de Saddam Hussei 's egime, subs a ial efo ms i educa io a d li e acy ook place, wi h Saddam Hussei i oduci g ma da o y eadi g g oups fo adul s, wi h pu ishme s fo o a e di g co sis i g of heavy fi es, a d eve jail ime. UNESCO awa ded I aq fo havi g Mos effec ive li e acy campaig i he wo ld.,73 wi h es ima es bei g ha i 1979 alo e, ove 2 millio I aqi adul s we e s udyi g i mo e ha 28,735 li e acy schools, wi h ove 75,000 eache s.74 Saddam Hussei 's egime also ma da ed educa io fo p ima y o high school, wi h Saddam's egime also ma da i g f ee ui io fo u ive si y s ude s.

Eco omic efo ms

Na io aliza io of oil was impleme ed, which aimed o achieve eco omic i depe de ce.75 By he la e 1970s, I aq expe ie ced sig ifica eco omic g ow h, wi h a budge ese ve su passi g US$35 billio . The value of 1 I aqi di a was wo h mo e ha 3 dolla s, maki g i o e of he mos o able eco omic expa sio s i he egio . Saddam Hussei 's egime aimed o dive sify he I aqi eco omy beyo d oil. The gove me i ves ed i va ious i dus ies, i cludi g pe ochemicals, fe ilize p oduc io , a d ex ile ma ufac u i g, o educe depe de ce o oil eve ues a d p omo e eco omic self-sufficie cy.76 By he 1970s, wome employme a e also i c eased.

Followi g i vasio of Kuwai a d i i ia i g he Gulf Wa , I aq was sa c io ed by he UN, which caused eco omic decli e. I 1995, he U.S. p eside Bill Cli o i oduced Oil-fo -Food P og amme, i which I aq sold oil o he wo ld ma ke i excha ge fo huma i a ia eeds. The p og am was accep ed by he Ba'a his gove me i 1996.77 By 1995, GDP of I aq d opped o US$9 billio f om US$44.36 billio i 1990. I aq had los a ou d US$170 billio of oil eve ues. The eco omy of I aq imp oved i 2000, as i s GDP i c eased o U$23.73 billio by 2000.78

Social efo ms

Saddam Hussei also ook s eps o p omo e wome 's igh s wi hi I aq. By he la e 1970s, wome i I aq held sig ifica oles i socie y, ep ese i g 46% of all eache s, 29% of all doc o s, 46% of all de is a d 70% of all pha macis s. These adva ceme s sig aled p og ess i wome 's pa icipa io i va ious p ofessio al fields.ci a io eeded Wome also saw d as ic i c ease i igh s i o he -aspec s of life, wi h wome bei g give equal- igh s i ma iage, divo ce, i he i a ce, a d cus ody.79 Wome i I aq also had he abili y o pass hei ci ize ship dow o hei child e eve if hey ma ied a o -I aqi, which I aqi wome o lo ge have he abili y o do. Wome 's educa io o lo ge was a luxu y, wi h wome havi g he same oppo u i ies as me i highe educa io .79

Saddam Hussei also i oduced social secu i y p og ams, wi h he o able pa s of he p og am co sis i g of disabili y be efi s, wi h disabled people i I aq becomi g eligible fo fi a cial assis a ce.80 I also i oduced heal hca e cove age, e su i g I aqi ci ize s had access o heal hca e a d medica io whe eeded,81 Al hough du i g he 90's I aqi-heal hca e dec eased i i s effec ive ess wi h he sa c io s es ic i g basic-medical equipme a d supplies f om ge i g i o I aq.82

F eedom of eligio

I aq u de Saddam Hussei was k ow fo eligious ole a ce, as diffe e eligious mi o i ies coexis ed peacefully. Du i g his e u e, mo e ha 1.2 millio Ch is ia s lived i I aq, highligh i g he cou y's dive se eligious la dscape. Ta iq Aziz, who was a Chaldea , held va ious poli ical posi io s i he Ba'a his gove me a d was a close adviso o Saddam Hussei . Due o close ela io s wi h Chaldea s, Saddam do a ed heavy amou o Chaldea chu ches a d i s i u io s ac oss he U i ed S a es, despi e havi g hos ile ela io s.ci a io eeded

Du i g Saddam Hussei 's ule, he Jewish commu i y i I aq was ea ed fai ly.83 They we e amo g he va ious eligious mi o i y g oups i he cou y. They had he f eedom o p ac ice hei eligio .84 The I aqi gove me eve helped es o e he Baghdad Sy agogue abou e yea s befo e he was ous ed.85 A i cide ook place o 4 Oc obe 1998, whe a Pales i ia ma ope ed fi e, killi g fou people i cludi g wo Jews. Followi g he a es of Pales i ia pe pe a o , he I aqi gove me pledged o e su e p omp jus ice. As a p ecau io a y measu e, police gua ds we e s a io ed a he sy agogue, a d he I aqi Cabi e eleased a s a eme de ou ci g he shoo i g i cide . The Cabi e emphasized ha he Jewish commu i y i I aq a e I aqis ha should o be associa ed wi h Zio is ac ivi ies aimed a dis up i g he poli ical, eco omic, social, a d heal h secu i y of A ab cou ies.86

Saddam Hussei was ecog ized fo safegua di g he Ma daea mi o i y i I aq.87 wi h Ma daea s bei g give s a e p o ec io u de Saddam Hussei , Saddams pe so al Jewelle was a Ma daea . Howeve , af e his egime's dow fall, Ma daea s faced seve e pe secu io , a d co s a kid appi gs, a d of e exp essed ha hey we e be e u de Saddam's ule.88

Fo eig policy

Fo eig affai s

Saddam developed a epu a io fo liki g expe sive goods, such as his diamo d-coa ed Rolex w is wa ch, a d se copies of hem o his f ie ds a ou d he wo ld. To his ally Ke e h Kau da Saddam o ce se a Boei g 747 full of p ese s— ugs, elevisio s, o ame s.ci a io eeded Saddam e joyed a close ela io ship wi h Russia i ellige ce age Yevge y P imakov ha da ed back o he 1960s; P imakov may have helped Saddam o s ay i powe i 1991.89

Saddam visi ed o ly wo Wes e cou ies. The fi s visi ook place i Decembe 1974, whe he Caudillo of Spai , F a cisco F a co, i vi ed him o Mad id a d he visi ed G a ada, Có doba a d Toledo.90 I Sep embe 1975 he me wi h P ime Mi is e Jacques Chi ac i Pa is, F a ce.91

Seve al I aqi leade s, Leba ese a ms me cha Sa kis Sogha alia a d o he s have claimed ha Saddam fi a ced Chi ac's pa y. I 1991 Saddam h ea e ed o expose hose who had ake la gesse f om him: F om M . Chi ac o M . Chevè eme , poli icia s a d eco omic leade s we e i ope compe i io o spe d ime wi h us a d fla e us. We have ow g asped he eali y of he si ua io . If he icke y co i ues, we will be fo ced o u mask hem, all of hem, befo e he F e ch public.91 F a ce a med Saddam a d i was I aq's la ges ade pa e h oughou Saddam's — ule. Seized docume s show how F e ch officials a d busi essme close o Chi ac, i cludi g Cha les Pasqua, his fo me i e io mi is e , pe so ally be efi ed f om he deals wi h Saddam.91

Because Saddam Hussei a ely lef I aq, Ta iq Aziz, o e of Saddam's aides, aveled ab oad ex e sively a d ep ese ed I aq a ma y diploma ic mee i gs.92 I fo eig affai s, Saddam sough o have I aq play a leadi g ole i he Middle Eas . I aq sig ed a aid pac wi h he Sovie U io i 1972, a d a ms we e se alo g wi h seve al housa d advise s. The 1978 c ackdow o I aqi Commu is s a d a shif of ade owa d he Wes s ai ed I aqi ela io s wi h he Sovie U io ; I aq he ook o a mo e Wes e o ie a io u il he Gulf Wa i 1991.93

Af e he oil c isis of 1973, F a ce had cha ged o a mo e p o-A ab policy a d was acco di gly ewa ded by Saddam wi h close ies. He made a s a e visi o F a ce i 1975, ceme i g close ies wi h some F e ch busi ess a d uli g poli ical ci cles. I 1975 Saddam ego ia ed a acco d wi h I a ha co ai ed I aqi co cessio s o bo de dispu es. I e u , I a ag eed o s op suppo i g opposi io Ku ds i I aq. Saddam led A ab opposi io o he Camp David Acco ds be wee Egyp a d Is ael (1979).

I aq's ela io s wi h he A ab wo ld have bee ex emely va ied. Rela io s be wee I aq a d Egyp viole ly up u ed i 1977, whe he wo a io s b oke ela io s wi h each o he followi g I aq's c i icism of Egyp ia P eside A wa Sada 's peace i i ia ives wi h Is ael. I 1978, Baghdad hos ed a A ab League summi ha co dem ed a d os acized Egyp fo accep i g he Camp David Acco ds. Egyp 's s o g ma e ial a d diploma ic suppo fo I aq i he wa wi h I a led o wa me ela io s a d ume ous co ac s be wee se io officials, despi e he co i ued abse ce of ambassado ial-level ep ese a io . Si ce 1983, I aq has epea edly called fo es o a io of Egyp 's a u al ole amo g A ab cou ies. Saddam i i ia ed I aq's uclea e ichme p ojec i he 1980s, wi h F e ch assis a ce. The fi s I aqi uclea eac o was amed by he F e ch Osi ak. Osi ak was des oyed o 7 Ju e 198194 by a Is aeli ai s ike (Ope a io Ope a). Saddam Hussei was widely k ow fo his commi me o he Pales i ia cause a d his a i-Is ael s a ce. I 2001, Saddam said o I aqi elevisio :95 .mw-pa se -ou pu . empla equo eove flow:hidde ;ma gi :1em 0;paddi g:0 32px.mw-pa se -ou pu . empla equo e . empla equo eci eli e-heigh :1.5em; ex -alig :lef ;paddi g-lef :1.6em;ma gi - op:0

Pales i e is A ab a d mus be libe a ed f om he ive o he sea a d all he Zio is s who emig a ed o he la d of Pales i e mus leave.

Nea ly f om i s fou di g as a mode s a e i 1920, I aq has had o deal wi h Ku dish sepa a is s i he o he pa of he cou y.96 Saddam did ego ia e a ag eeme i 1970 wi h sepa a is Ku dish leade s, givi g hem au o omy, bu he ag eeme b oke dow . The esul was b u al figh i g be wee he gove me a d Ku dish g oups a d I aqi bombi g of Ku dish villages i I a , which caused I aqi ela io s wi h I a o de e io a e. Af e Saddam ego ia ed he 1975 ea y wi h I a , he Shah wi hd ew suppo fo he Ku ds, who we e defea ed.

I a –I aq Wa (1980–1988)

I ea ly 1979, I a 's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi a d Pahlavi dy as y we e ove h ow by he Islamic Revolu io , hus givi g way o a Islamic epublic led by he Aya ollah Ruhollah Khomei i.98 The i flue ce of evolu io a y Shi'i e Islam g ew apace i he egio , pa icula ly i cou ies wi h la ge Shi'i e popula io s, especially I aq.98 Saddam fea ed ha adical Islamic ideas—hos ile o his secula ule—we e apidly sp eadi g i side his cou y amo g he majo i y Shi'i e popula io .98 Despi e Saddam's fea s of massive u es , I a 's a emp s o expo i s Islamic Revolu io we e la gely u successful i allyi g suppo f om Shi'i es i I aq a d he Gulf s a es. Mos I aqi Shi'i es, who comp ised he majo i y of he I aqi A med Fo ces, chose hei ow cou y ove hei Shi'i e I a ia co eligio is s du i g he I a –I aq Wa ha e sued.99

The e had also bee bi e e mi y be wee Saddam a d Khomei i si ce he 1970s.98 Khomei i, havi g bee exiled f om I a i 1964, ook up eside ce i I aq, a he Shi'i e holy ci y of Najaf.98 The e he i volved himself wi h I aqi Shi'i es a d developed a s o g eligious a d poli ical followi g agai s he I a ia Gove me , which Saddam ole a ed.98 Whe Khomei i bega o u ge he Shi'i es he e o ove h ow Saddam a d u de p essu e f om he Shah, who had ag eed o a app ocheme be wee I aq a d I a i 1975, Saddam ag eed o expel Khomei i i 1978 o F a ce.98 He e, Khomei i gai ed media co ec io s a d collabo a ed wi h a much la ge I a ia commu i y, o his adva age.98

Af e Khomei i gai ed powe , ski mishes be wee I aq a d evolu io a y I a occu ed fo e mo hs ove he sove eig y of he dispu ed Sha al-A ab wa e way, which divides he wo cou ies.98 Du i g his pe iod, Saddam Hussei publicly mai ai ed ha i was i I aq's i e es o o e gage wi h I a , a d ha i was i he i e es s of bo h a io s o mai ai peaceful ela io s.98 I a p iva e mee i g wi h Salah Oma al-Ali, I aq's pe ma e ambassado o he U i ed Na io s, he evealed ha he i e ded o i vade a d occupy a la ge pa of I a wi hi mo hs.98

I aq i vaded I a o 22 Sep embe 1980, fi s lau chi g ai s ikes o ume ous a ge s i I a , i cludi g he Meh abad Ai po of Teh a , befo e occupyi g he oil- ich I a ia p ovi ce of Khuzes a , which also has a sizable A ab mi o i y, decla i g i a ew p ovi ce of I aq.98 The i vasio was i i ially successful, as I aq cap u ed mo e ha 25,900 km2 of I a ia e i o y by 5 Decembe 1980.10098 Wi h he suppo of o he A ab s a es, he U i ed S a es, a d Eu ope, a d heavily fi a ced by he A ab s a es of he Pe sia Gulf, Saddam Hussei had become he defe de of he A ab wo ld agai s a evolu io a y, fu dame alis a d Shia Islamis I a .98 The o ly excep io was he Sovie U io , which i i ially efused o supply I aq o he basis of eu ali y i he co flic , al hough i his memoi s, Mikhail Go bachev claimed ha Leo id B ezh ev efused o aid Saddam ove i fu ia io of Saddam's ea me of I aqi commu is s. Co seque ly, ma y viewed I aq as a age of he civilized wo ld.99 The bla a dis ega d of i e a io al law a d viola io s of i e a io al bo de s we e ig o ed. I s ead I aq eceived eco omic a d mili a y suppo f om i s allies, who ove looked Saddam's use of chemical wa fa e agai s he Ku ds a d he I a ia s, i addi io o I aq's effo s o develop uclea weapo s.99

I he fi s days of he wa , he e was heavy g ou d figh i g a ou d s a egic po s as I aq lau ched a a ack o Khuzes a . Af e maki g some i i ial gai s, I aq's oops bega o suffe losses f om huma wave a acks by I a . By 1982, I aq was o he defe sive a d looki g fo ways o e d he wa .98

A his poi , Saddam asked his mi is e s fo ca did advice.98 Heal h Mi is e D . Riyadh Ib ahim sugges ed ha Saddam empo a ily s ep dow o p omo e peace ego ia io s.98 I i ially, Saddam Hussei appea ed o ake i his opi io as pa of his cabi e democ acy. A few weeks la e , D . Ib ahim was sacked whe held espo sible fo a fa al i cide i a I aqi hospi al whe e a pa ie died f om i ave ous admi is a io of he w o g co ce a io of po assium suppleme . D . Ib ahim was a es ed a few days af e his emoval f om he cabi e . He was k ow o have publicly decla ed befo e ha a es ha he was glad ha he go away alive. Pieces of Ib ahim's dismembe ed body we e delive ed o his wife he ex day.101

I aq quickly fou d i self bogged dow i o e of he lo ges a d mos des uc ive wa s of a i io of he 20 h ce u y.98 Du i g he wa , I aq used chemical weapo s agai s I a ia fo ces figh i g o he sou he f o a d Ku dish sepa a is s who we e a emp i g o ope up a o he f o i I aq wi h he help of I a .98 I aqi Fo eig Mi is e Ta iq Aziz la e ack owledged I aq's use of chemical weapo s agai s I a , bu said ha I a had used hem agai s I aq fi s .102 These chemical weapo s we e developed by I aq f om ma e ials a d ech ology supplied p ima ily by Wes Ge ma compa ies as well as usi g dual-use ech ology impo ed followi g he Reaga admi is a io 's lif i g of expo es ic io s.103 The US gove me also supplied I aq wi h sa elli e pho os showi g I a ia deployme s.,104 which we e la e deemed o be misleadi g i ellige ce i fo ma io desig ed o p olo g he wa wi h I a a d i c ease US i flue ce i he egio , co ibu i g o he I aqi defea i he Fi s Ba le of al-Faw i Feb ua y 1986.105 I a US bid o ope full diploma ic ela io s wi h I aq, he cou y was emoved f om he US lis of S a e Spo so s of Te o ism i Feb ua y 1982.106 Os e sibly, his was because of imp oveme i he egime's eco d, al hough fo me US Assis a Sec e a y of Defe se Noel Koch la e s a ed, No o e had a y doub s abou he I aqis' co i ued i volveme i e o ism ... The eal easo was o help hem succeed i he wa agai s I a .107 The Sovie U io , F a ce, a d Chi a oge he accou ed fo ove 90% of he value of I aq's a ms impo s be wee 1980 a d 1988.108 While he U i ed S a es supplied I aq wi h a ms, dual-use ech ology a d eco omic aid, i was also i volved i a cove a d illegal a ms deal, p ovidi g sa c io ed I a wi h weapo y. This poli ical sca dal became k ow as he I a –Co a affai .109

Saddam eached ou o o he A ab gove me s fo cash a d poli ical suppo du i g he wa , pa icula ly af e I aq's oil i dus y seve ely suffe ed a he ha ds of he I a ia avy i he Pe sia Gulf.98 I aq successfully gai ed some mili a y a d fi a cial aid, as well as diploma ic a d mo al suppo , f om he Sovie U io , Chi a, F a ce, a d he US, which oge he fea ed he p ospec s of he expa sio of evolu io a y I a 's i flue ce i he egio .98 The I a ia s, dema di g ha he i e a io al commu i y should fo ce I aq o pay wa epa a io s o I a , efused a y sugges io s fo a cease-fi e. Despi e seve al calls fo a ceasefi e by he U i ed Na io s Secu i y Cou cil, hos ili ies co i ued u il 20 Augus 1988.98

The bloody eigh -yea wa e ded i a s alema e. E cyclopædia B i a ica s a es: Es ima es of o al casual ies a ge f om 1,000,000 o wice ha umbe . The umbe killed o bo h sides was pe haps 500,000, wi h I a suffe i g he g ea es losses.110 Nei he side had achieved wha hey had o igi ally desi ed a d he bo de s we e lef ea ly u cha ged.98 The sou he , oil ich a d p ospe ous Khuzes a a d Bas a a ea ( he mai focus of he wa , a d he p ima y sou ce of hei eco omies) we e almos comple ely des oyed a d we e lef a he p e-1979 bo de , while I a ma aged o make some small gai s o i s bo de s i he No he Ku dish a ea. Bo h eco omies, p eviously heal hy a d expa di g, we e lef i ui s.98

Saddam bo owed e s of billio s of dolla s f om o he A ab s a es a d a few billio s f om elsewhe e du i g he 1980s o figh I a , mai ly o p eve he expa sio of Shi'a adicalism.98 This backfi ed o I aq a d he A ab s a es, fo Khomei i was widely pe ceived as a he o fo ma agi g o defe d I a a d mai ai he wa wi h li le fo eig suppo agai s he heavily backed I aq a d o ly ma aged o boos Islamic adicalism o o ly wi hi he A ab s a es, bu wi hi I aq i self, c ea i g ew e sio s be wee he Su i Ba'a h Pa y a d he majo i y Shi'a popula io .98 Faced wi h ebuildi g I aq's i f as uc u e a d i e al esis a ce, Saddam despe a ely e-sough cash, his ime fo pos wa eco s uc io .98

A fal campaig

The A fal campaig was a ge ocidal campaig 111 ha ook place du i g he I a –I aq Wa agai s he Ku dish people (a d ma y o he s) i Ku dish egio s of I aq led by he gove me of Saddam Hussei a d headed by Ali Hassa al-Majid. The campaig akes i s ame f om Qu 'a ic chap e 8 (al-ʾa fāl), which was used as a code ame by he fo me I aqi Ba'a his admi is a io fo a se ies of a acks agai s he peshme ga ebels a d he mos ly Ku dish civilia popula io of u al No he I aq, co duc ed be wee 1986 a d 1989 culmi a i g i 1988. This campaig also a ge ed Shabaks a d Yazidis, Assy ia s, Tu koma people a d ma y villages belo gi g o hese e h ic g oups we e also des oyed. Huma Righ s Wa ch es ima es ha be wee 50,000 a d 100,000 people we e killed.112 Some Ku dish sou ces pu he umbe highe , es ima i g ha 182,000 Ku ds we e killed.11311458

O 16 Ma ch 1988, he Ku dish ow of Halabja was a acked wi h a mix of mus a d gas a d e ve age s du i g he Halabja massac e, killi g be wee 3,200 a d 5,000 people, a d i ju i g 7,000 o 10,000 mo e, mos ly civilia s.115116117 The a ack occu ed i co ju c io wi h he A fal campaig desig ed o easse ce al co ol of he mos ly Ku dish popula io of a eas of o he I aq a d defea he Ku dish peshme ga ebel fo ces. Followi g he i cide , The U.S. S a e Depa me ook he official posi io ha I a was pa ly o blame fo he Halabja massac e.118 A s udy by he Defe se I ellige ce Age cy held I a espo sible fo he a ack. This assessme was subseque ly used by he Ce al I ellige ce Age cy fo much of he ea ly 1990s.119 Despi e his, few obse ve s oday doub ha i was I aq ha execu ed he Halabja massac e.120

Te sio s wi h Kuwai

The e d of he wa wi h I a se ved o deepe la e e sio s be wee I aq a d i s weal hy eighbo Kuwai . Saddam u ged he Kuwai is o waive he I aqi deb accumula ed i he wa , some $30 billio , bu hey efused.122 Saddam pushed oil-expo i g cou ies o aise oil p ices by cu i g back p oduc io ; Kuwai efused, he led he opposi io i OPEC o he cu s ha Saddam had eques ed. Kuwai was pumpi g la ge amou s of oil, a d hus keepi g p ices low, whe I aq eeded o sell high-p iced oil f om i s wells o pay off i s huge deb .122

Saddam had co sis e ly a gued ha Kuwai had his o ically bee a i eg al pa of I aq, a d had o ly come i o bei g as a esul of i e fe e ce f om he B i ish gove me ; echoi g a belief ha I aqi a io alis s had suppo ed fo he pas fif y yea s. This belief was o e of he few a icles of fai h u i i g he poli ical sce e i a a io ife wi h sha p social, e h ic, eligious, a d ideological divides.122 The ex e of Kuwai i oil ese ves also i e sified e sio s i he egio . The oil ese ves of Kuwai (wi h a popula io of 2 millio ex o I aq's 25) we e oughly equal o hose of I aq. Take oge he , I aq a d Kuwai sa o op of some 20 pe ce of he wo ld's k ow oil ese ves; Saudi A abia held a o he 25 pe ce . Saddam s ill had a expe ie ced a d well-equipped a my, which he used o i flue ce egio al affai s. He la e o de ed oops o he I aq–Kuwai bo de .122

As I aq–Kuwai ela io s apidly de e io a ed, Saddam was eceivi g co flic i g i fo ma io abou how he US would espo d o he p ospec s of a i vasio . Fo o e, Washi g o had bee aki g measu es o cul iva e a co s uc ive ela io ship wi h I aq fo oughly a decade. The Reaga admi is a io gave I aq oughly $4 billio i ag icul u al c edi s o bols e i agai s I a .123 Saddam's I aq became he hi d-la ges ecipie of US assis a ce.124

Reac i g o Wes e c i icism i Ap il 1990, Saddam h ea e ed o des oy half of Is ael wi h chemical weapo s if i moved agai s I aq.125 I May 1990 he c i icized US suppo fo Is ael wa i g ha he US ca o mai ai such a policy while p ofessi g f ie dship owa ds he A abs.126 I July 1990 he h ea e ed fo ce agai s Kuwai a d he UAE sayi g The policies of some A ab ule s a e Ame ica ... They a e i spi ed by Ame ica o u de mi e A ab i e es s a d secu i y.127 The US se wa pla es a d comba ships o he Pe sia Gulf i espo se o hese h ea s.128

The US ambassado o I aq, Ap il Glaspie, me wi h Saddam i a eme ge cy mee i g o 25 July 1990, whe e he I aqi leade a acked Ame ica policy wi h ega ds o Kuwai a d he U i ed A ab Emi a es (UAE):129

So wha ca i mea whe Ame ica says i will ow p o ec i s f ie ds? I ca o ly mea p ejudice agai s I aq. This s a ce plus ma euve s a d s a eme s which have bee made has e cou aged he UAE a d Kuwai o dis ega d I aqi igh s. If you use p essu e, we will deploy p essu e a d fo ce. We k ow ha you ca ha m us al hough we do o h ea e you. Bu we oo ca ha m you. Eve yo e ca cause ha m acco di g o hei abili y a d hei size. We ca o come all he way o you i he US, bu i dividual A abs may each you. We do o place Ame ica amo g he e emies. We place i whe e we wa ou f ie ds o be a d we y o be f ie ds. Bu epea ed Ame ica s a eme s las yea made i appa e ha Ame ica did o ega d us as f ie ds.

Glaspie eplied:129

I k ow you eed fu ds. We u de s a d ha a d ou opi io is ha you should have he oppo u i y o ebuild you cou y. Bu we have o opi io o he A ab-A ab co flic s, like you bo de disag eeme wi h Kuwai . ... F a kly, we ca o ly see ha you have deployed massive oops i he sou h. No mally ha would o be a y of ou busi ess. Bu whe his happe s i he co ex of wha you said o you a io al day, he whe we ead he de ails i he wo le e s of he Fo eig Mi is e , he whe we see he I aqi poi of view ha he measu es ake by he UAE a d Kuwai is, i he fi al a alysis, pa allel o mili a y agg essio agai s I aq, he i would be easo able fo me o be co ce ed.

Saddam s a ed ha he would a emp las -di ch ego ia io s wi h he Kuwai is bu I aq would o accep dea h.129 US officials a emp ed o mai ai a co cilia o y li e wi h I aq, i dica i g ha while Geo ge H. W. Bush a d James Bake did o wa fo ce used, hey would o ake a y posi io o he I aq–Kuwai bou da y dispu e a d did o wa o become i volved.130 La e , I aq a d Kuwai me fo a fi al ego ia io sessio , which failed. Saddam he se his oops i o Kuwai . As e sio s be wee Washi g o a d Saddam bega o escala e, he Sovie U io , u de Mikhail Go bachev, s e g he ed i s mili a y ela io ship wi h he I aqi leade , p ovidi g him mili a y advise s, a ms a d aid.131

Gulf Wa

O 2 Augus 1990, Saddam i vaded Kuwai , i i ially claimi g assis a ce o Kuwai i evolu io a ies, hus spa ki g a i e a io al c isis. O 4 Augus a I aqi-backed P ovisio al Gove me of F ee Kuwai was p oclaimed, bu a o al lack of legi imacy a d suppo fo i led o a 8 Augus a ou ceme of a me ge of he wo cou ies. O 28 Augus Kuwai fo mally became he 19 h Gove o a e of I aq. Jus wo yea s af e he 1988 I aq a d I a uce, Saddam Hussei did wha his Gulf pa o s had ea lie paid him o p eve . Havi g emoved he h ea of I a ia fu dame alism he ove a Kuwai a d co f o ed his Gulf eighbo s i he ame of A ab a io alism a d Islam.99

Whe la e asked why he i vaded Kuwai , Saddam fi s claimed ha i was because Kuwai was igh fully I aq's 19 h p ovi ce a d he said Whe I ge some hi g i o my head I ac . Tha 's jus he way I am.57 Saddam Hussei could pu sue such mili a y agg essio wi h a mili a y machi e paid fo i la ge pa by he e s of billio s of dolla s Kuwai a d he Gulf s a es had pou ed i o I aq a d he weapo s a d ech ology p ovided by he Sovie U io , Ge ma y, a d F a ce.99 I was evealed du i g his 2003–2004 i e oga io ha i addi io o eco omic dispu es, a i sul i g excha ge be wee he Kuwai i emi Al Sabah a d he I aqi fo eig mi is e – du i g which Saddam claimed ha he emi s a ed his i e io o u eve y I aqi woma i o a $10 p os i u e by ui i g I aq fi a cially – was a decisive fac o i igge i g he I aqi i vasio .132 Sho ly befo e he i vaded Kuwai , he shipped 100 ew Me cedes 200 Se ies ca s o op edi o s i Egyp a d Jo da . Two days befo e he fi s a acks, Saddam epo edly offe ed Egyp 's Hos i Muba ak 50 millio dolla s i cash, os e sibly fo g ai .133

US P eside Geo ge H. W. Bush espo ded cau iously fo he fi s seve al days. O o e ha d, Kuwai , p io o his poi , had bee a vi ule e emy of Is ael a d was he Pe sia Gulf mo a chy ha had he mos f ie dly ela io s wi h he Sovie s.134 O he o he ha d, Washi g o fo eig policymake s, alo g wi h Middle Eas expe s, mili a y c i ics, a d fi ms heavily i ves ed i he egio , we e ex emely co ce ed wi h s abili y i his egio .135 The i vasio immedia ely igge ed fea s ha he wo ld's p ice of oil, a d he efo e co ol of he wo ld eco omy, was a s ake. B i ai p ofi ed heavily f om billio s of dolla s of Kuwai i i ves me s a d ba k deposi s. Bush was pe haps swayed while mee i g wi h B i ish p ime mi is e Ma ga e Tha che , who happe ed o be i he US a he ime.136

Coope a io be wee he US a d he Sovie U io made possible he passage of esolu io s i he U i ed Na io s Secu i y Cou cil (UNSC) givi g I aq a deadli e o leave Kuwai a d app ovi g he use of fo ce if Saddam did o comply wi h he ime able. US officials fea ed I aqi e alia io agai s oil- ich Saudi A abia, si ce he 1940s a close ally of Washi g o , fo he Saudis' opposi io o he i vasio of Kuwai . Acco di gly, he US a d a g oup of allies, i cludi g cou ies as dive se as Egyp , Sy ia a d Czechoslovakia, deployed a massive umbe of oops alo g he Saudi bo de wi h Kuwai a d I aq i o de o e ci cle he I aqi a my, he la ges i he Middle Eas . Saddam's office s loo ed Kuwai , s ippi g eve he ma ble f om i s palaces o move i o Saddam's ow palace.67

Du i g he pe iod of ego ia io s a d h ea s followi g he i vasio , Saddam focused e ewed a e io o he Pales i ia p oblem by p omisi g o wi hd aw his fo ces f om Kuwai if Is ael would eli quish he occupied e i o ies i he Wes Ba k, he Gola Heigh s, a d he Gaza S ip. Saddam's p oposal fu he spli he A ab wo ld, pi i g US- a d Wes e -suppo ed A ab s a es agai s he Pales i ia s. The allies ul ima ely ejec ed a y li kage be wee he Kuwai c isis a d Pales i ia issues.

Saddam ig o ed he Secu i y Cou cil deadli e. Backed by he Secu i y Cou cil, a US-led coali io lau ched ou d- he-clock missile a d ae ial a acks o I aq, begi i g 16 Ja ua y 1991. Is ael, hough subjec ed o a ack by I aqi missiles, ef ai ed f om e alia i g i o de o o p ovoke A ab s a es i o leavi g he coali io . A g ou d fo ce co sis i g la gely of US a d B i ish a mo ed a d i fa y divisio s ejec ed Saddam's a my f om Kuwai i Feb ua y 1991 a d occupied he sou he po io of I aq as fa as he Euph a es.137 O 6 Ma ch 1991, Bush a ou ced Wha is a s ake is mo e ha o e small cou y, i is a big idea—a ew wo ld o de , whe e dive se a io s a e d aw oge he i commo cause o achieve he u ive sal aspi a io s of ma ki d: peace a d secu i y, f eedom, a d he ule of law.138

I he e d, he I aqi a my p oved u able o compe e o he ba lefield wi h he highly mobile coali io la d fo ces a d hei ove powe i g ai suppo . Some 175,000 I aqis we e ake p iso e a d casual ies we e es ima ed a ove 85,000. As pa of he cease-fi e ag eeme , I aq ag eed o sc ap all poiso gas a d ge m weapo s a d allow UN obse ve s o i spec he si es. UN ade sa c io s would emai i effec u il I aq complied wi h all e ms. Saddam publicly claimed vic o y a he e d of he wa .

1990s

I aq's e h ic a d eligious divisio s, oge he wi h he b u ali y of he co flic ha his had e ge de ed, laid he g ou dwo k fo pos wa ebellio s. I he af e ma h of he figh i g, social a d e h ic u es amo g Shi'i e Muslims, Ku ds, a d disside mili a y u i s h ea e ed he s abili y of Saddam's gove me . Up isi gs e up ed i he Ku dish o h a d Shi'a sou he a d ce al pa s of I aq, bu we e u hlessly ep essed. Up isi gs i 1991 led o he dea h of 100,000–180,000 people, mos ly civilia s.139

The US, which had u ged I aqis o ise up agai s Saddam, did o hi g o assis he ebellio s. The I a ia s, despi e he widesp ead Shi'i e ebellio s, had o i e es i p ovoki g a o he wa , while Tu key opposed a y p ospec of Ku dish i depe de ce, a d he Saudis a d o he co se va ive A ab s a es fea ed a I a -s yle Shi'i e evolu io . Saddam, havi g su vived he immedia e c isis i he wake of defea , was lef fi mly i co ol of I aq, al hough he cou y eve ecove ed ei he eco omically o mili a ily f om he Gulf Wa .99

Saddam ou i ely ci ed his su vival as p oof ha I aq had i fac wo he wa agai s he US. This message ea ed Saddam a g ea deal of popula i y i ma y sec o s of he A ab wo ld. Joh Esposi o w o e, A abs a d Muslims we e pulled i wo di ec io s. Tha hey allied o so much o Saddam Hussei as o he bipola a u e of he co f o a io ( he Wes ve sus he A ab Muslim wo ld) a d he issues ha Saddam p oclaimed: A ab u i y, self-sufficie cy, a d social jus ice. As a esul , Saddam Hussei appealed o ma y people fo he same easo s ha a ac ed mo e a d mo e followe s o Islamic evivalism a d also fo he same easo s ha fueled a i-Wes e feeli gs.99

O e US Muslim obse ve who? o ed: People fo go abou Saddam's eco d a d co ce a ed o Ame ica ... Saddam Hussei migh be w o g, bu i is o Ame ica who should co ec him. A shif was, he efo e, clea ly visible amo g ma y Islamic moveme s i he pos wa pe iod f om a i i ial Islamic ideological ejec io of Saddam Hussei , he secula pe secu o of Islamic moveme s, a d his i vasio of Kuwai o a mo e populis A ab a io alis , a i-impe ialis suppo fo Saddam (o mo e p ecisely hose issues he ep ese ed o champio ed) a d he co dem a io of fo eig i e ve io a d occupa io .99

Some eleme s of Sha ia law we e e-i oduced, a d he ph ase Allahu Akba (God is g ea ), i Saddam's ha dw i i g, was added o he a io al flag. Saddam also commissio ed he p oduc io of a Blood Qu 'a , w i e usi g 27 li es of his ow blood, o ha k God fo savi g him f om va ious da ge s a d co spi acies.140

The U i ed Na io s-placed sa c io s agai s I aq fo i vadi g Kuwai we e o lif ed, blocki g I aqi oil expo s. Du i g he la e 1990s, he UN co side ed elaxi g he sa c io s imposed because of he ha dships suffe ed by o di a y I aqis. S udies dispu e he umbe of people who died i sou h a d ce al I aq du i g he yea s of he sa c io s.141142143144145 O 9 Decembe 1996, Saddam's gove me accep ed he Oil-fo -Food P og amme ha he UN had fi s offe ed i 1992.

Rela io s be wee he US a d I aq emai ed e se followi g he Gulf Wa . The US lau ched a missile a ack aimed a I aq's i ellige ce headqua e s i Baghdad 26 Ju e 1993, ci i g evide ce of epea ed I aqi viola io s of he o fly zo es imposed af e he Gulf Wa a d fo i cu sio s i o Kuwai . US officials co i ued o accuse Saddam of viola i g he e ms of he Gulf Wa 's cease fi e, by developi g weapo s of mass des uc io a d o he ba ed weapo y, a d viola i g he UN-imposed sa c io s. Also du i g he 1990s, P eside Bill Cli o mai ai ed sa c io s a d o de ed ai s ikes i he I aqi o-fly zo es (Ope a io Dese Fox), i he hope ha Saddam would be ove h ow by poli ical e emies i side I aq. Wes e cha ges of I aqi esis a ce o UN access o suspec ed weapo s we e he p e ex fo c ises be wee 1997 a d 1998, culmi a i g i i e sive US a d B i ish missile s ikes o I aq, 16–19 Decembe 1998. Af e wo yea s of i e mi e ac ivi y, US a d B i ish wa pla es s uck ha de a si es ea Baghdad i Feb ua y 2001. Fo me CIA case office Robe Bae epo s ha he ied o assassi a e Saddam i 1995,146 amid a decade-lo g effo o e cou age a mili a y coup i I aq.147

Saddam co i ued i volveme i poli ics ab oad. Video apes e ieved af e show his i ellige ce chiefs mee i g wi h A ab jou alis s, i cludi g a mee i g wi h he fo me ma agi g di ec o of Al-Jazee a, Mohammed Jassem al-Ali, i 2000. I he video Saddam's so Uday advised al-Ali abou hi es i Al-Jazee a: Du i g you las visi he e alo g wi h you colleagues we alked abou a umbe of issues, a d i does appea ha you i deed we e lis e i g o wha I was sayi g si ce cha ges ook place a d ew faces came o boa d such as ha lad, Ma sou . He was la e sacked by Al-Jazee a.148

2000s

I 2002, Aus ia p osecu o s i ves iga ed Saddam gove me 's a sac io s wi h F i z Edli ge ha possibly viola ed Aus ia mo ey lau de i g a d emba go egula io s.149 F i z Edli ge , p eside of he Ge e al Sec e a y of he Socie y fo Aus o-A ab ela io s (GÖAB) a d a fo me membe of Socialis I e a io al's Middle Eas Commi ee, was a ou spoke suppo e of Saddam Hussei . I 2005, a Aus ia jou alis evealed ha F i z Edli ge 's GÖAB had eceived $100,000 f om a I aqi f o compa y as well as do a io s f om Aus ia compa ies solici i g busi ess i I aq.150

I 2002, a esolu io spo so ed by he Eu opea U io was adop ed by he Commissio fo Huma Righ s, which s a ed ha he e had bee o imp oveme i he huma igh s c isis i I aq. The s a eme co dem ed P eside Saddam Hussei 's gove me fo i s sys ema ic, widesp ead a d ex emely g ave viola io s of huma igh s a d i e a io al huma i a ia law. The esolu io dema ded ha I aq immedia ely pu a e d o i s summa y a d a bi a y execu io s ... he use of ape as a poli ical ool a d all e fo ced a d i volu a y disappea a ces.151

Poli ical a d cul u al image

Du i g his leade ship, Saddam p omo ed he idea of dual a io alism which combi es I aqi a io alism a d A ab a io alism, a much b oade fo m of e h ic a io alism which suppo s I aqi a io alism a d li ks i o ma e s ha impac A abs as a whole.152 Saddam Hussei believed ha he ecog i io of he a cie Mesopo amia o igi s a d he i age of I aqi A abs was compleme a y o suppo i g A ab a io alism.152

I he cou se of his eig , he Ba'a his egime officially i cluded he his o ic Ku dish Muslim leade Saladi as a pa io ic symbol i I aq, while Saddam called himself so of he Babylo ia Ki g Nebuchad ezza a d had s amped he b icks of a cie Babylo wi h his ame a d i les ex o him.153154 Du i g he Gulf Wa , Saddam claimed he his o ic oles of Nebuchad ezza , Saladi a d Gamal Abdel Nasse .99

He also co duc ed wo show elec io s, i 1995 a d 2002. I he 1995 efe e dum, co duc ed o 15 Oc obe , he epo edly eceived 99.96% of he vo es i a 99.47% u ou , ge i g 3,052 ega ive vo es amo g a elec o a e of 8.4 millio .155156

I he 15 Oc obe 2002 efe e dum he officially achieved 100% of app oval vo es a d 100% u ou , as he elec o al commissio epo ed he ex day ha eve y o e of he 11,445,638 eligible vo e s cas a Yes vo e fo he p eside .157

He e ec ed s a ues a ou d he cou y, which I aqis oppled af e his fall.158159

2003 i vasio a d I aq Wa

Ma y membe s of he i e a io al commu i y, especially he US, co i ued o view Saddam as a bellicose y a who was a h ea o he s abili y of he egio . I his Ja ua y 2002 s a e of he u io add ess o Co g ess, P eside Geo ge W. Bush spoke of a axis of evil co sis i g of I a , No h Ko ea, a d I aq. Mo eove , Bush a ou ced ha he would possibly ake ac io o opple he I aqi gove me , because of he h ea of i s weapo s of mass des uc io . Bush s a ed ha The I aqi egime has plo ed o develop a h ax, a d e ve gas, a d uclea weapo s fo ove a decade ... I aq co i ues o flau i s hos ili y owa d Ame ica a d o suppo e o .160161

Af e he passi g of UNSC Resolu io 1441, which dema ded ha I aq give immedia e, u co di io al a d ac ive coope a io wi h UN a d IAEA i spec io s,162 Saddam allowed U.N. weapo s i spec o s led by Ha s Blix o e u o I aq. Du i g he e ewed i spec io s begi i g i Novembe 2002, Blix fou d o s ockpiles of WMD a d o ed he p oac ive bu o always immedia e I aqi coope a io as called fo by Resolu io 1441.163

Wi h wa s ill loomi g o 24 Feb ua y 2003, Saddam Hussei ook pa i a i e view wi h CBS News epo e Da Ra he . Talki g fo mo e ha h ee hou s, he de ied possessi g a y weapo s of mass des uc io , o a y o he weapo s p ohibi ed by UN guideli es. He also exp essed a wish o have a live elevised deba e wi h Geo ge W. Bush, which was decli ed. I was his fi s i e view wi h a US epo e i ove a decade.164 CBS ai ed he aped i e view la e ha week. Saddam Hussei la e old a FBI i e viewe ha he o ce lef ope he possibili y ha I aq possessed weapo s of mass des uc io i o de o appea s o g agai s I a .165132

The I aqi gove me a d mili a y collapsed wi hi h ee weeks of he begi i g of he US-led 2003 i vasio of I aq o 20 Ma ch. By he begi i g of Ap il, US-led fo ces occupied much of I aq. The esis a ce of he much-weake ed I aqi A my ei he c umbled o shif ed o gue illa ac ics, a d i appea ed ha Saddam had los co ol of I aq. He was las see i a video which pu po ed o show him i he Baghdad subu bs su ou ded by suppo e s. Whe Baghdad fell o US-led fo ces o 9 Ap il, ma ked symbolically by he oppli g of his s a ue,166 Saddam was owhe e o be fou d.

Cap u e a d i e oga io

I Ap il 2003, Saddam's whe eabou s emai ed i ques io du i g he weeks followi g he fall of Baghdad a d he co clusio of he majo figh i g of he wa . Va ious sigh i gs of Saddam we e epo ed i he weeks followi g he wa , bu o e we e au he ica ed. A va ious imes Saddam eleased audio apes p omo i g popula esis a ce o his ous i g.

Saddam was placed a he op of he US lis of mos -wa ed I aqis. I July 2003, his so s Uday a d Qusay a d 14-yea -old g a dso Mus apha we e killed i a h ee-hou gu figh wi h US fo ces i Mosul wi h US fo ces.167168

O 13 Decembe 2003, i Ope a io Red Daw , Saddam was cap u ed by Ame ica fo ces af e bei g fou d hidi g i a hole i he g ou d ea a fa mhouse i ad-Daw , ea Tik i . Followi g his cap u e, Saddam was a spo ed o a US base ea Tik i , a d la e ake o he Ame ica base ea Baghdad. Docume s ob ai ed a d eleased by he Na io al Secu i y A chive de ail FBI i e views a d co ve sa io s wi h Saddam while he was i US cus ody.169 O 14 Decembe , US admi is a o i I aq Paul B eme co fi med ha Saddam Hussei had i deed bee cap u ed a a fa mhouse i ad-Daw ea Tik i .170 B eme p ese ed video foo age of Saddam i cus ody.

Saddam was show wi h a full bea d a d hai lo ge ha his familia appea a ce. He was desc ibed by US officials as bei g i good heal h. B eme epo ed pla s o pu Saddam o ial, bu claimed ha he de ails of such a ial had o ye bee de e mi ed. I aqis a d Ame ica s who spoke wi h Saddam af e his cap u e ge e ally epo ed ha he emai ed self-assu ed, desc ibi g himself as a fi m, bu jus leade .171

B i ish abloid ewspape The Su pos ed a pic u e of Saddam wea i g whi e b iefs o he f o cove of a ewspape . O he pho og aphs i side he pape show Saddam washi g his ouse s, shuffli g, a d sleepi g. The US gove me s a ed ha i co side ed he elease of he pic u es a viola io of he Ge eva Co ve io a d ha i would i ves iga e he pho og aphs.172173 Du i g his pe iod Saddam was i e oga ed by FBI age Geo ge Pi o.174

The gua ds a he Baghdad de e io facili y called hei p iso e Vic, which s a ds fo Ve y Impo a C imi al a d le him pla a small ga de ea his cell. The ick ame a d he ga de a e amo g he de ails abou he fo me I aqi leade ha eme ged du i g a Ma ch 2008 ou of he Baghdad p iso a d cell whe e Saddam slep , ba hed, kep a jou al, a d w o e poe y i he fi al days befo e his execu io ; he was co ce ed o e su e his legacy a d how he his o y would be old. The ou was co duc ed by US Ma i e Maj. Ge . Doug S o e, ove see of de e io ope a io s fo he US mili a y i I aq a he ime. Du i g his imp iso me he exe cised a d was allowed o have his pe so al ga de ; he also smoked his ciga s a d w o e his dia y i he cou ya d of his cell.175

T ial

O 30 Ju e 2004, Saddam Hussei , held i cus ody by US fo ces a he US base Camp C oppe , alo g wi h 11 o he se io Ba'a his leade s, was ha ded ove o he i e im I aqi gove me o s a d ial fo c imes agai s huma i y a d o he offe ces.

A few weeks la e , he was cha ged by he I aqi Special T ibu al wi h c imes commi ed agai s eside s of Dujail i 1982, followi g a failed assassi a io a emp agai s him. Specific cha ges i cluded he mu de of 148 people, o u e of wome a d child e a d he illegal a es of 399 o he s.176177 Amo g he ma y challe ges of he ial we e:

O 5 Novembe 2006, Saddam was fou d guil y of c imes agai s huma i y a d se e ced o dea h by ha gi g. Saddam's half-b o he , Ba za Ib ahim, a d Awad Hamed al-Ba da , head of I aq's Revolu io a y Cou i 1982, we e co vic ed of simila cha ges. The ve dic a d se e ci g we e bo h appealed, bu subseque ly affi med by I aq's Sup eme Cou of Appeals.179

Execu io

Saddam was ha ged o he fi s day of Eid ul-Adha, 30 Decembe 2006,180 despi e his wish o be execu ed by fi i g squad (which he a gued was he lawful mili a y capi al pu ishme , ci i g his mili a y posi io as he comma de -i -chief of he I aqi mili a y).181 The execu io was ca ied ou a Camp Jus ice, a I aqi a my base i Kadhimiya, a eighbo hood of o heas Baghdad.

Saudi A abia co dem ed I aqi au ho i ies fo ca yi g o wi h he execu io o a holy day. A p ese e f om he Al-Ikhba iya elevisio s a io officially s a ed: The e is a feeli g of su p ise a d disapp oval ha he ve dic has bee applied du i g he holy mo hs a d he fi s days of Eid al-Adha. Leade s of Islamic cou ies should show espec fo his blessed occasio ... o demea i .182

Video of he execu io was eco ded o a mobile pho e a d his cap o s could be hea d i sul i g Saddam. The video was leaked o elec o ic media a d pos ed o he I e e wi hi hou s, becomi g he subjec of global co ove sy.183 I was la e claimed by he head gua d a he omb whe e his emai s lay ha Saddam's body had bee s abbed six imes af e he execu io .184 Saddam's demea o while bei g led o he gallows has bee discussed by wo wi esses, I aqi Judge Mu i Haddad a d I aqi a io al secu i y advise Mowaffak al-Rubaie. The accou s of he wo wi esses a e co adic o y as Haddad desc ibes Saddam as bei g s o g i his fi al mome s whe eas al-Rubaie says Saddam was clea ly af aid.185

Saddam's las wo ds du i g he execu io , May God's blessi gs be upo Muhammad a d his household. A d may God has e hei appea a ce a d cu se hei e emies. The o e of he c owd epea edly said he ame of he I aqi Shii e cle ic, Moq ada Al-Sad . Saddam laughed a d la e said, Do you co side his ma hood? The c owd shou ed, go o Hell. Saddam eplied, To he hell ha is I aq!? Agai , o e of he c owd asked hose who shou ed o keep quie fo God. Saddam Hussei s a ed eci a io of fi al Muslim p aye s, I bea wi ess ha he e is o god bu Allah a d I es ify ha Muhammad is he Messe ge of Allah. O e of he c owd shou ed, The y a dic a o has collapsed! Saddam said, May God's blessi gs be upo Muhammad a d his household (family). He eci ed he shahada o e a d a half imes, as while he was abou o say 'Muhammad' o he seco d shahada, he apdoo ope ed, cu i g him off mid-se e ce. The ope b oke his eck, killi g him i s a ly.186

No lo g befo e he execu io , Saddam's lawye s eleased his las le e .187

A seco d u official video, appa e ly showi g Saddam's body o a olley, eme ged seve al days la e . I spa ked specula io ha he execu io was ca ied ou i co ec ly as Saddam Hussei had a gapi g hole i his eck.188

Saddam was bu ied a his bi hplace of Al-Awja i Tik i , I aq, o 31 Decembe 2006. He was bu ied 3 km (2 mi) f om his so s Uday a d Qusay Hussei .189 His omb was epo ed o have bee des oyed i Ma ch 2015.190 Befo e i was des oyed, a Su i ibal g oup epo edly emoved his body o a sec e loca io , fea ful of wha migh happe .191

Pe so al life a d family

I Augus 1995, Raghad a d he husba d, Hussei Kamel al-Majid, a d Ra a a d he husba d, Saddam Kamel al-Majid, defec ed o Jo da , aki g hei child e wi h hem. They e u ed o I aq whe hey eceived assu a ces ha Saddam would pa do hem. Wi hi h ee days of hei e u i Feb ua y 1996, bo h of he Kamel b o he s we e a acked a d killed i a gu figh wi h o he cla membe s who co side ed hem ai o s.

I Augus 2003, Saddam's daugh e s Raghad a d Ra a eceived sa c ua y i Amma , Jo da . Tha mo h, hey spoke wi h CNN a d he A ab sa elli e s a io Al-A abiya i Amma . Whe asked abou he fa he , Raghad old CNN, He was a ve y good fa he , lovi g, has a big hea . Asked if she wa ed o give a message o he fa he , she said: I love you a d I miss you. He sis e Ra a also ema ked, He had so ma y feeli gs a d he was ve y e de wi h all of us.198

Phila h opy

I 1979, Jacob Yasso of Sac ed Hea Chaldea Chu ch i De oi , Michiga co g a ula ed Saddam Hussei o his p eside cy. I e u , Yasso said ha Saddam Hussei do a ed US$250,000 o his chu ch, which is made up of a leas 1,200 families of Middle Eas e desce . I 1980, De oi Mayo Colema You g allowed Yasso o p ese he key o he ci y of De oi o Saddam Hussei . A he ime, Saddam he asked Yasso, I hea d he e was a deb o you chu ch. How much is i ? Af e he i qui y, Saddam he do a ed a o he $200,000 o Chaldea Sac ed Hea Chu ch. Yasso said ha Saddam made do a io s o Chaldea chu ches all ove he wo ld, a d eve we o eco d as sayi g He's ve y ki d o Ch is ia s.199

Ho o s a d awa ds

I 1991, he I aqi gove me awa ded Saddam he Rafidai medal, also k ow as O de of he Two Rive s, he cou y's highes ho o , as a ecog i io of his his o ic ole a d oble se vices o I aq.200201 This a ou ceme was made followi g a Cabi e mee i g, a d I fo ma io Mi is e Hamid Youssef Hummadi s a ed ha he decisio was u a imous.200201 The awa d was bes owed o Saddam Hussei , du i g his 54 h bi hday, i app ecia io of his excep io al co ibu io s a d sig ifica impac o I aq.200

He was ho o ed by i les such as Field Ma shal a d Com ade. Saddam Hussei is o e of he ecipie s of he Key o he Ci y.199202 I 1980, Saddam Hussei was awa ded a key o he ci y of De oi af e he do a ed almos half a millio dolla s o a chu ch i he ci y of De oi .203 The Ba'a h gove me led by Saddam Hussei , successfully u ed I aq i o a leadi g hub fo heal hca e a d educa io .204 This imp oved quali y of life i I aq.205 Fo imp ovi g quali y of life of I aqis, Saddam was ho o ed by a awa d f om UNESCO.206

Saddam eceived a umbe of medals, which we e displayed a a museum i Joha esbu g, Sou h Af ica.207 He eceived o O de of Me i (Wisam al-Jada a), which is a e a d was awa ded o o ly a few I aqi ule s.208 O de of he Mo he of Ba les was awa ded o Saddam Hussei fo his ole i he 1991 Gulf Wa agai s Kuwai a d he U i ed S a es.209 Saddam eceived medals fo he 1948–'49 Pales i ia Wa , c ushi g he Ku dish ebellio , he 1963 a d 1968 evolu io s, coope a io wi h Sy ia, peace i 1970, a d he 1973 wa wi h Is ael.210

Recep io a d legacy

Saddam is some imes accused of a ep essive o ali a ia gove me .59211212 His egime was o o ious fo i s ep essive ac ics, i cludi g widesp ead su veilla ce, o u e, a d ex ajudicial killi gs.213214 Huma igh s o ga iza io s docume ed ume ous cases of huma igh s abuses commi ed by his gove me .215 Saddam egime supp essed poli ical disse a d opposi io h ough a combi a io of viole ce, i imida io , a d ce so ship.214 F eedom of speech a d f eedom of he p ess we e seve ely cu ailed, a d poli ical oppo e s we e of e execu ed o imp iso ed.216 Saddam i i ia ed seve al mili a y co flic s, i cludi g he I a -I aq Wa , I vasio of Kuwai a d he Gulf Wa .217 These ac io s esul ed i sig ifica loss of life a d des abilized he egio .218 While he e we e eco omic developme i i ia ives, Saddam's egime was also ma ked by misma ageme a d widesp ead co up io .219 The eco omic sa c io s imposed o I aq du i g his ule fu he exace ba ed eco omic ha dships fo he cou y's popula io .220

Du i g his ule, he impleme ed va ious policies a d i i ia ives ha some people viewed as be eficial fo I aq a d he b oade Middle Eas e egio . I aq du i g Saddam was developed i e ms of educa io a d Saddam Hussei 's gove me i ves ed heavily i i f as uc u e p ojec s, such as oads, b idges, a d public buildi gs.221222 This developme co ibu ed o he mode iza io of I aq's ci ies a d imp oved he cou y's ove all i f as uc u e.223 U de Saddam Hussei 's egime, he e was a emphasis o imp ovi g access o educa io a d heal hca e.223224225 The gove me i ves ed i buildi g schools a d hospi als, a d li e acy a es i I aq i c eased sig ifica ly du i g his ule.226227228 Saddam Hussei 's gove me impleme ed policies aimed a adva ci g wome 's igh s i I aq.229 Wome we e e cou aged o pa icipa e i educa io a d he wo kfo ce, a d ma y held high- a ki g posi io s i gove me a d public i s i u io s.230231 Saddam Hussei 's egime had a secula cha ac e , which mea ha eligio did o play a domi a ole i he gove me 's policies. This allowed fo a deg ee of eligious dive si y a d ole a ce wi hi I aq. S ill oday, ma y I aqi Jews espec Saddam, fo his ea me o Jews.232 Saddam's egime la e placed g ea e emphasis o Islam i all sec o s of I aqi life f om 1993 h ough he Fai h Campaig . I 1977, Saddam s a ed ou Pa y does o ake a eu al s a ce be wee fai h a d a heism; i is always o he side of fai h.233

I he A ab wo ld, Saddam is well ega ded, especially fo his suppo of he Pales i ia cause.234 A memo ial dedica ed o Saddam was buil i Qalqilya, Pales i e.235236237 Addi io ally, ma y po ai s a d o he fo ms of memo ials a e fou d h oughou Pales i e.238239 Du i g his egime, I aq a d I dia sha ed a s o g ela io ship.240 Eve oday, Saddam has a huge fa followi g i I dia.241 I dia si ge Sidhu Moose Wala me io ed Saddam i his so g Bambiha Bole, s a i g ha he was a well- epu ed pe so . Saddam was a admi e of I di a Ga dhi, whom he me i 1974 du i g a i e a io al ip o I dia.242 Fo me US p eside Do ald T ump p aised Saddam fo mili a supp essio a d s abili y du i g his p eside cy i I aq.243 A beach ea he I dia ci y of Malappu am has bee amed Saddam Beach. Saddam is s ill loved by ma y Jo da ia s.244 Despi e havi g e se ela io s wi h Ku dish sepa a is s, Saddam developed good ela io s wi h some Ku ds who suppo ed him.245 Ma y I aqi Jews ega d Saddam as he g a ed p o ec io o hem.232

Cul u al depic io s of Saddam ca be fou d i va ious movies, i cludi g h ee docume a y movies made o Saddam. Saddam's T ibe, eleased i 2007, explo es he complex ela io ship be wee Saddam Hussei a d he Albu Nasi ibe, a powe ful ibal g oup i I aq. I 2008, a TV se ies based o his life — House of Saddam was eleased. I ish ac o Ba y Keogha will appea i a ew movie abou Saddam which was a ou ced i 2024.246 Saddam domi a ed poli ics of I aq fo 35 yea s a d developed a cul of pe so ali y i he wo ld.